1932
0
  1. Home
  2. A-Z Publications
  3. Annual Review of Anthropology
  4. Volume 52, 2023
  5. Article

Annual Review of Anthropology

Volume 52, 2023

Slaving and Slave Trading in Africa

Abstract

Slavery in Africa dates to antiquity. Slave trading networks in Africa transported people across the Sahara and the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, with significant numbers of people sent to the Middle East, India, central Asia, and South and Southeast Asia. Africa, however, was not only a source of export of people; enslaved persons were also imported into the continent. This article reviews scholarly research into the capture, trade, and use of enslaved men, women, and children in Africa, with a focus on Ghana. It suggests that the history and legacies of slavery and slave trading cannot be understood without reference to African historiography, the politics of knowledge production, and present-day heritage tourism. In reviewing the historical and anthropological research, it also introduces some of the possibilities, problems, and challenges of archaeological approaches to studying slavery and slave trading to demonstrate that archaeology is in conversation with—and of value to—those outside the discipline.

Keyword(s): critical heritage, forts and castles, Ghana, heritage tourism, pilgrimage, slave trading, slavery, transatlantic slave trade
Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-052621-022531
2023-10-23
2024-04-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/anthro/52/1/annurev-anthro-052621-022531.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-052621-022531&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Adu Boahen A. 1961. The African Association, 1788–1805. Trans. Hist. Soc. Ghana 5:143–64
     [Google Scholar]
  2. Adu Boahen K. 2011. Post-Abolition Slaveholding in the Gold Coast: Slave Mistresses of Coastal Fante, 1807–1874 Saarbrücken, Ger.: Lambert Acad.
  3. Agyare-Yeboah K. 2019. We need to talk about Ghana's Year of Return and its politics of exclusion. African Arguments Dec. 19. https://africanarguments.org/2019/12/19/ghana-year-of-return-politics-of-exclusion/
    [Google Scholar]
  4. Agyei-Mensah S. 2006. Marketing its colonial heritage: a new lease of life for Cape Coast, Ghana?. Int. J. Urban Reg. Res. 30:3705–16
     [Google Scholar]
  5. Aidoo AA. 1965. The Dilemma of a Ghost. New York: Collier
  6. Aidoo AA. 1970. Anowa London: Longman Drumbeat
  7. Akyeampong E. 2001. History, memory, slave-trade and slavery in Anlo (Ghana). Slavery Abolit. 22:1–24
     [Google Scholar]
  8. Alexander J. 2001. Islam, archaeology and slavery in Africa. World Archaeol. 33:144–60
     [Google Scholar]
  9. Allman J, Parker J. 2005. Tongnaab: The History of a West African God Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
  10. Amos AM, Ayesu E. 2002. ‘I am Brazilian.’ History of the Tabon Afro-Brazilians in Accra, Ghana. Trans. Hist. Soc. Ghana 2002:635–58
     [Google Scholar]
  11. Anquandah J, Opoku-Agyemang NJ, Doortmont MR. 2007. The Transatlantic Slave Trade: Landmarks, Legacies, Expectations Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan
  12. Anquandah JK. 1999. Castles and Forts of Ghana Paris: Atalante
  13. Apoh W, Anquandah J, Amenyo-Xa S. 2018. Shit, blood, artifacts, and tears: interrogating visitor perceptions and archaeological residues at Ghana's Cape Coast Castle slave dungeon. J. Afr. Diaspora Archaeol. Herit. 7:105–30
     [Google Scholar]
  14. Apter A. 2017. History in the dungeon: Atlantic slavery and the spirit of capitalism in Cape Coast Castle, Ghana. Am. Hist. Rev. 122:23–54
     [Google Scholar]
  15. Arhin K. 1983. Rank and class among the Asante and Fante in the nineteenth century. Africa 53:12–22
     [Google Scholar]
  16. Bailey AC. 2005. African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame Boston: Beacon
  17. Bellagamba A, Greene SE, Klein MA, eds 2013a. African Voices on Slavery and the Slave Trade, Vol. I Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  18. Bellagamba A, Greene SE, Klein MA, eds 2013b. The Bitter Legacy: African Slavery Past and Present. Princeton, NJ: Markus Weiner
  19. Bellagamba A, Greene SE, Klein MA, eds 2016. African Voices on Slavery and the Slave Trade, Vol. II Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  20. Bellagamba A, Greene SE, Klein MA, eds 2017. African Slaves, African Masters: Histories, Memories, Legacies Trenton, NJ: Afr. World Press
  21. Benson S. 2007/2008.. ‘ They came from the North’: historical truth and the duties of memory along Ghana's slave route. Camb. J. Anthropol. 27:290–101
     [Google Scholar]
  22. Benson S, McCaskie TC. 2004. Asen Praso in history and memory. Ghana Stud. 7:93–113
     [Google Scholar]
  23. Benton A, Shabazz KZ. 2009.. “ Find their level”: African American roots tourism in Sierra Leone and Ghana. Cah. d’Études Afr. 193:1477–511
     [Google Scholar]
  24. Biveridge F. 2014. A historical archaeology perspective of cross-cultural encounters at Dixcove and its neighbourhoods PhD Thesis Univ. Ghana, Accra:
  25. Biveridge F. 2020. Archaeological manifestations of cross-cultural encounters along the Dixove coastline, Western Region, Ghana. Azania 55:2189–216
     [Google Scholar]
  26. Boachie-Ansah J. 2005. Archaeological research at Kasana: a search for evidence on the historic slave traffic in the Upper West region of Ghana. J. Environ. Cult. 2:135–57
     [Google Scholar]
  27. Boachie-Ansah J. 2008. Excavations at Fort Amsterdam, Abandze, Central Region. Current Archaeological Research in Ghana T Insoll 37–61. Oxford, UK: Archaeopress
     [Google Scholar]
  28. Boachie-Ansah J. 2009. Archaeological investigation at the Danish plantation site of Brockman, Ghana. Afrique 5:149–72
     [Google Scholar]
  29. Bonsu NO. 2016. The trans-Atlantic slave trade: an examination of the incorrectness of the Ghana senior high school history syllabus. Africology 9:4373–79
     [Google Scholar]
  30. Bredwa-Mensah Y. 1996. Slavery and plantation life at the Danish plantation site of Bibease, Gold Coast (Ghana). Ethnogr.-Archaol. Z. 4:445–58
     [Google Scholar]
  31. Bredwa-Mensah Y. 1999. Archaeology of slavery in West Africa. Trans. Hist. Soc. Ghana 3:27–43
     [Google Scholar]
  32. Bredwa-Mensah Y. 2004. Global encounters: slavery and slave lifeways on nineteenth century Danish plantations on the Gold Coast, Ghana. J. Afr. Archaeol. 2:2203–27
     [Google Scholar]
  33. Bredwa-Mensah Y. 2008. Slavery and resistance on nineteenth century Danish plantations in Southeastern Gold Coast, Ghana. Afr. Study Monogr. 29:3133–45
     [Google Scholar]
  34. Brichet N. 2018. An Anthropology of Common Ground: Awkward Encounters in Heritage Work Manchester, UK: Mattering
  35. Bruner E. 1996. Tourism in Ghana: the representation of slavery and the return of the black diaspora. Am. Anthropol. 98:2290–304
     [Google Scholar]
  36. Calvocoressi D. 1977. Excavations at Bantama, near Elmina, Ghana. West Afr. J. Archaeol. 7:117–41
     [Google Scholar]
  37. Campbell G, Miers S, Miller JC, eds 2007. Women as Slaves and Owners of Slaves: Experiences from Africa, the Indian Ocean World, and the Early Atlantic, Vol. I Athens: Ohio Univ. Press
  38. Cole CM. 1996. Reading blackface in West Africa: wonders taken for signs. Crit. Inq. 23:1183–215
     [Google Scholar]
  39. Cooper F. 1979. The problem of slavery in African studies. J. Afr. Hist. 20:1103–25
     [Google Scholar]
  40. Curtin PD. 1969. The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census Madison: Univ. Wis. Press
  41. Daaku KY. 1970. Trade and Politics on the Gold Coast: 1600–1720: A Study of the African Reaction to European Trade Oxford, UK: Clarendon
  42. DeCorse CR. 1991. West African archaeology and the Atlantic slave trade. Slavery Abolit. 12:292–96
     [Google Scholar]
  43. DeCorse CR. 1992. Culture contact, continuity and change on the Gold Coast AD 1400–1900. Afr. Archaeol. Rev. 10:159–92
     [Google Scholar]
  44. DeCorse CR. 2001a. An Archaeology of Elmina: Africans and Europeans on the Gold Coast, 1400–1900 Washington, DC: Smithson. Inst.
  45. DeCorse CR 2001b. West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives London: Leicester Univ. Press
  46. Der BG. 1998. The Slave Trade in Northern Ghana Accra, Ghana: Woeli
  47. Doortmont MR. 2012. Kamerling in Ghana: a Euro-African family history and an old-fashioned love story. Ned. Leeuw 129:178–92
     [Google Scholar]
  48. Duah FB. 2000. Ghana museums and history: Cape Coast Castle Museum. Museums and History in West Africa CD Ardoun, E Arinze 116–22. Washington, DC: Smithson. Inst.
     [Google Scholar]
  49. Ebron PA. 1999. Tourists as pilgrims: commercial fashioning of transatlantic politics. Am. Ethnol. 26:4910–32
     [Google Scholar]
  50. Eltis D, Behrendt SD, Richardson D, Klein HS, eds 1999. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: A Database on CD-ROM. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  51. Engmann RAA. 2019a.. “ Archaeo, that useless subject”: excavating the past through autoarchaeology and community outreach education. Ghana Stud. J. 22:173–90
     [Google Scholar]
  52. Engmann RAA. 2019b. Autoarchaeology at Christiansborg Castle: decolonizing knowledge, pedagogy and praxis. J. Commun. Archaeol. Herit. 6:3204–19
     [Google Scholar]
  53. Engmann RAA. 2021a. Coups, castles and cultural heritage: conversations with Flt Lieut. Jerry John Rawlings, Former President of Ghana. J. Herit. Tour. 16:6722–37
     [Google Scholar]
  54. Engmann RAA. 2021b. Monumental remnants: framing Ghana's forts and castles. Remnants of a Haunted Past Y Pare 1–21. Milan: 5 Continents
     [Google Scholar]
  55. Engmann RAA. 2021c. Unearthing mixed-raceness at Christiansborg Castle in Osu, Accra, Ghana. J. Soc. Archit. Hist. 80:4385–88
     [Google Scholar]
  56. Engmann RAA. 2022. Contested heritage and absent objects: archaeological representation at Ghana's forts and castles. The Oxford Handbook of Museum Archaeology A Stevenson 197–220. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  57. Engmann RAA. 2023a. Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings, Pan-Africanism, heritage tourism, and Ghana's development. Jerry John Rawlings—Leadership and Legacy: A Pan-African Perspective F Kumah-Abiwu, S Abidde 271–82. Cham, Switz: Springer
     [Google Scholar]
  58. Engmann RAA. 2023b. Slavery, heritage and West Africa. The Routledge Handbook of African Cultural Heritage Studies J Giblin, A Sinamai, S Chirikure Abingdon, UK: Routledge
     [Google Scholar]
  59. Engmann RAA 2024. Castle slavery. Oxford Handbook of the Comparative Archaeology of Slavery J Webster, MP Leone Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press In press
    [Google Scholar]
  60. Engmann RAA, Engmann DA. 2023a. Excavating knowledge. Afr. Stud. Assoc. Newsl. 2023:7–10
     [Google Scholar]
  61. Engmann RAA, Engmann DA. 2023b. Excavating knowledge: transformative critical heritage pedagogies and participatory democracy at Christiansborg Castle. Heritage and Democracy: Crisis, Critique, and Collaboration, ed. SK Lafrenz, J Daehnke 147–69. Gainesville: Univ. Press Fla.
     [Google Scholar]
  62. Ephson IS. 1970. Ancient Forts and Castles of the Gold Coast (Ghana) Accra, Ghana: Ilen
  63. Eshun E. 2005. Black Gold of the Sun: Searching for Home in England and Africa London: Hamish Hamilton
  64. Essah P. 2001. Slavery, heritage and tourism in Ghana. Slavery, Contested Heritage and Thanatourism GMS Dann, AV Seaton 31–49. Binghamton, NY: Haworth
     [Google Scholar]
  65. Essien K. 2016. Brazilian-African Diaspora in Ghana: The Tabom, Slavery, Dissonance of Memory, Identity, and Locating Home East Lansing: Mich. State Univ. Press
  66. Everts N. 1996. Cherchez la femme: gender related issues in eighteenth century Elmina. Itinerario 20:145–57
     [Google Scholar]
  67. Fage JD. 1969. Slavery and the slave trade in the context of West African history. J. R. Afr. Soc. 70:280236–51
     [Google Scholar]
  68. Feinberg HM. 1989. Africans and Europeans in West Africa: Elminans and Dutchmen on the Gold Coast During the Eighteenth Century Philadelphia: Am. Philos. Soc.
  69. Finley C. 2001. The door of (no) return. . Commonplace 1:41–4
     [Google Scholar]
  70. Finley C 2004. Authenticating dungeons, whitewashing castles: the former sites of the slave trade on the Ghanaian coast. Architecture and Tourism D Medina Lasansky, B McLaren 109–26. Oxford, UK: Berg
     [Google Scholar]
  71. Gaines K. 2006. American Africans in Ghana: Black Expatriates and the Civil Rights Era Chapel Hill: Univ. N. C. Press
  72. Getz TR. 2004. Slavery and Reform in West Africa: Towards Emancipation in Nineteenth Century Senegal and the Gold Coast Athens: Ohio Univ. Press
  73. Getz TR, Clarke L. 2016. Abina and the Important Men: A Graphic History Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  74. Goody J. 1971. Technology, Tradition, and the State in Africa Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  75. Greene SE 1997. Crossing boundaries/changing identities: female slaves, male strangers, and their descendants in nineteenth- and twentieth-century Anlo. Gendered Encounters: Challenging Cultural Boundaries and Social Hierarchies in Africa M Grosz-Ngaté, OH Kokole 23–41. New York: Routledge
     [Google Scholar]
  76. Greene SE. 2003. Whispers and silences: explorations in African oral history. Afr. Today 50:241–53
     [Google Scholar]
  77. Greene SE. 2009. Modern trokosi (child slavery) and the 1807 abolition in Ghana: connecting the past and present. William Mary Q. 66:4959–74
     [Google Scholar]
  78. Greene SE. 2011. West African Narratives of Slavery: Texts from Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Ghana Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
  79. Greene SE. 2017. Slave Owners of West Africa: Decision-Making in the Age of Abolition Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
  80. Haenger P. 2000. Slaves and Slave Holders on the Gold Coast: Towards an Understanding of Social Bondage in West Africa, transl. C Handford Basel, Switz.: Schlettwein
     [Google Scholar]
  81. Hair PEH. 1994. The Founding of Castelo de São Jorge Da Mina: An Analysis of the Sources Madison: Univ. Wis. Press
  82. Haley A. 1976. Roots: The Saga of an American Family New York: Dell
  83. Handler JS. 2009. The middle passage and the material culture of captive Africans. Slavery Abolit. 30:11–26
     [Google Scholar]
  84. Hartman S. 2007. Lose Your Mother: A Journey Along the Atlantic Slave Route New York: Farrar, Straus Giroux
  85. Hasty J. 2002. Rites of passage, routes of redemption: emancipation tourism and the wealth of culture. Afr. Today 49:347–78
     [Google Scholar]
  86. Herbstein M. 2005. Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade Johannesburg: Picador Afr.
  87. Hernaes PO. 2002.. “ Fort slavery” at Christiansborg on the Gold Coast: wage labour in the making?. Slavery Across Time and Space P Hernaes, T Iversen 197–230. Trondheim, Nor.: Nor. Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  88. Holsey B. 2008. Routes of Remembrance: Refashioning the Atlantic Slave Trade in Ghana Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press
  89. Inikori JE 1996. Slavery in Africa and the trans-atlantic slave trade. The African Diaspora A Jalloh, SE Maizlish 73–99. College Station: Tex. A&M Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  90. Ipsen P. 2015. Daughters of the Trade: Atlantic Slavers and Interracial Marriage on the Gold Coast Philadelphia: Univ. Pa. Press
  91. Jordan CA. 2007. Rhizomorphics of race and space: Ghana's slave castles and the roots of African diasporan identity. J. Archit. Educ. 60:448–59
     [Google Scholar]
  92. Kankpeyeng BW. 2009. The slave trade in northern Ghana: landmarks, legacies and connections. Slavery Abolit. 30:209–21
     [Google Scholar]
  93. Kea RA. 1982. Settlements, Trade and Politics in the Seventeenth Century Gold Coast Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press
  94. Kea RA. 2012. A Cultural and Social History of Ghana from the Seventeenth to the Nineteenth Century New York: Edwin Mellon
  95. Keren E 2009. The transatlantic slave trade in Ghanaian academic historiography: history, memory, and power. William Mary Q. 66:4975–1000
     [Google Scholar]
  96. Klein MA. 1978. The study of slavery in Africa. J. Afr. Hist. 19:4599–609
     [Google Scholar]
  97. Klein MA. 1989. Studying the history of those who would rather forget: oral history and the experience of slavery. Hist. Afr. 16:209–17
     [Google Scholar]
  98. Klein MA, Lovejoy P 1979. Slavery in West Africa. The Uncommon Market: Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic Slave Trade HA Gemery, JS Hogendorn 181–212. New York: Academic
     [Google Scholar]
  99. Konadu-Agyemang K. 2001. Structural adjustment programmes and the international tourism trade in Ghana, 1983–99: some socio-spatial implications. Tour. Geogr. 3:2187–206
     [Google Scholar]
  100. Kreamer C. 2006. Shared heritage, contested terrain: cultural negotiation and Ghana's Cape Coast Castle Museum exhibit “Crossroads of People, Crossroads of Trade. .” In Museum Frictions: Public Cultures/Global Transformations I Karp, L Szwaja Kratz, T Ybarra-Frausto 435–68. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  101. Kwamena-Poh MA. 1973. Government and Politics in Akuapem State New York: Longman
  102. Lane PJ, MacDonald KC. 2011. Slavery in Africa: Archaeology and Memory Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  103. Larson PM. 2008. Horrid journeying: narratives of enslavement and the global African diaspora. J. World Hist. 19:4431–64
     [Google Scholar]
  104. Lawrence AW. 1963. Trade Castles and Forts of West Africa London: Jonathan Cape
  105. Lawrence AW. 1969. Fortified Trade Posts: The English in West Africa, 1645–1822 London: Jonathan Cape
  106. Lovejoy PE. 1982. The volume of the Atlantic slave trade: a synthesis. J. Afr. Hist. 23:473–501
     [Google Scholar]
  107. Lovejoy PE. 2012. Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  108. Lovejoy PE, Falola T, eds 2003. Pawnship, Slavery and Colonialism in Africa Trenton, NJ: Afr. World Press
  109. MacGonagle E. 2006. From dungeons to dance parties: contested histories of Ghana's slave forts. J. Contemp. Afr. Stud. 24:2249–68
     [Google Scholar]
  110. Manning P. 1990. Slavery in Africa: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  111. McSheffrey GM. 1983. Slavery, indentured servitude, legitimate trade and the impact of abolition in the Gold Coast, 1874–1901: a reappraisal. J. Afr. Hist. 24:349–68
     [Google Scholar]
  112. Meillassoux C. 1991. The Anthropology of Slavery: The Womb of Iron and Gold, transl. A Dasnois Chicago: Chicago Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  113. Miers S. 2003. Slavery: a question of definition. Slavery Abolit. 24:21–16
     [Google Scholar]
  114. Miers S, Kopytoff I, eds 1977. Slavery in Africa: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives Madison: Univ. Wis. Press
  115. Miers S, Roberts R, eds 1988. The End of Slavery in Africa Madison: Univ. Wis. Press
  116. Miller J. 1988. Way of Death: Merchant Capitalism and the Angolan Slave Trade, 1730–1830 Madison: Univ. Wis. Press
  117. Miller J 2008. Domiciled and dominated: slaving as a history of women. Women and Slavery Vol. 2 The Modern Atlantic G Campbell, S Miers, J Miller 284–310. Athens: Ohio Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  118. Morrison T. 1990. The site of memory. Out There: Marginalization and Contemporary Cultures R Fergusen 299–305. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
     [Google Scholar]
  119. Mowatt RA, Chancellor CH. 2011. Visiting death and life: dark tourism and slave castles. Ann. Tour. Res. 38:41410–34
     [Google Scholar]
  120. Mudimbe VY. 1988. The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
  121. Ogundiran A, Falola T, eds 2007. Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
  122. Okudzeto S. 2012. Emotive histories: the politics of remembering slavery in contemporary Ghana. Atl. Stud. 9:3337–61
     [Google Scholar]
  123. Oostindie G. 2005. The slippery paths of commemoration and heritage tourism: the Netherlands, Ghana, and the rediscovery of Atlantic slavery. New West Indian Guide 79:1/255–77
     [Google Scholar]
  124. Opoku-Agyemang K. 1996. Cape Coast Castle: A Collection of Poems Accra: Afram
     [Google Scholar]
  125. Opoku-Agyemang NJ. 2007. The living experience of the slave trade in Sankana and Gwollo and the implications for tourism. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: Landmarks, Legacies and Expectations JK Aquandah, NJ Opoku-Agyemang, M Dormant 210–23. Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan
     [Google Scholar]
  126. Osei-Tutu B. 2002. The African American factor in the commodification of Ghana's slave castles. Trans. Hist. Soc. Ghana 6:115–33
     [Google Scholar]
  127. Osei-Tutu B. 2007. Ghana's ‘slave castles,’ tourism, and the social memory of the Atlantic slave trade. Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora A Ogundiran, T Falola 185–95. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  128. Osei-Tutu JK 2018. Forts, Castles and Society in West Africa: Gold Coast and Dahomey1450–1960. Leiden, Neth.: Brill
  129. Osei-Tutu JK, Smith VE, eds 2017. Shadows of Empire: New Perspectives on European Fortifications in West Africa New York: Palgrave Macmillan
  130. Parker J. 2006. Northern gothic: witches, ghosts, and werewolves in the savanna hinterland of the Gold Coast, 1900s–1950s. Africa 76:3352–80
     [Google Scholar]
  131. Perbi AA. 1992. The relationship between the domestic slave trade and the external slave trade in pre-colonial Ghana. Inst. Afr. Stud. Res. Rev. 8:1–264–75
     [Google Scholar]
  132. Perbi AA. 1996. The legacy of indigenous slavery in contemporary Ghana. FASS Bull. 1:183–92
     [Google Scholar]
  133. Perbi AA. 2004. A History of Indigenous Slavery in Ghana: From the 15th to the 19th Centuries. Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan
  134. Perbi AA, Bredwa-Mensah Y. 2007. Slave camps in pre-colonial Ghana: the case of Jenini in the Brong Ahafo region. The Transatlantic Slave Trade: Landmarks, Legacies, Expectations JK Anquandah 138–47. Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan
     [Google Scholar]
  135. Posnansky M. 1984. Towards an archaeology of the black diaspora. J. Black Stud. 15:2195–205
     [Google Scholar]
  136. Posnansky M, Van Danzig A. 1976. Fort Ruychaver rediscovered. Sankofa 2:7–8
     [Google Scholar]
  137. Priestly M. 1969. West African Trade and Coast Society: A Family Study Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  138. Rattray R. S. 1969 (1929). Ashanti Law and Constitution New York: Negro Univ. Press
  139. Reed A. 2004. SankƆfa site: Cape Coast Castle and its museum as markers of memory. Mus. Anthropol. 27:1–213–24
     [Google Scholar]
  140. Reed A. 2015. Pilgrimage Tourism of Diaspora Africans to Ghana New York: Routledge
  141. Reynolds E. 1975. Trade and Economic Change on the Gold Coast, 1807–1874 New York: Longman
  142. Richards SL. 2003. What is to be remembered? Tourism to Ghana's slave castle-dungeons. Theatre J. 57:617–37
     [Google Scholar]
  143. Robertson CC, Klein MA, eds 1983. Women and Slavery in Africa Madison: Univ. Wis. Press
  144. Robertson CC, Robinson M 2008. Re-modeling slavery as if women mattered. Women and Slavery: The Modern Atlantic, Vol. 2 G Campbell, S Miers, JC Miller 253–83. Athens: Ohio Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  145. Robinson IV. 1994. Ghana—Don't whitewash the slave trade. New Afr. 324:4
     [Google Scholar]
  146. Rødland H, Wynne-Jones S. 2020. Archaeological approaches to slavery and unfree labour in Africa. Azania 55:4417–20
     [Google Scholar]
  147. Rodney W. 1966. African slavery and other forms of social oppression on the Upper Guinea coast in the context of the Atlantic slave trade. J. Afr. Hist. 12:431–43
     [Google Scholar]
  148. Saboro E 2013. Songs of sorrow, songs of triumph: memories of the slave trade among the Bulsa of Ghana. Bitter Legacy: African Slaves Past and Present A Bellangamba, S Greene, M Klein 133–47. Princeton, NJ: Marcus Weiner
     [Google Scholar]
  149. Saboro E. 2016. The burden of memory: oral and material evidence of human kidnapping for enslavement and resistance strategies among the Bulsa and Kasena of Ghana. Africology 9:4111–30
     [Google Scholar]
  150. Salau MB. 2018. Plantation Slavery in the Sokoto Caliphate: A Historical and Comparative Study Rochester, NY: Univ. Rochester Press
  151. Schramm K. 2010. African Homecoming: Pan-African Ideology and Contested Heritage Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast
  152. Shumway R. 2011. The Fante and the Transatlantic Slave Trade Rochester, NY: Univ. Rochester Press
  153. Shumway R. 2014. Castle slaves of the eighteenth-century Gold Coast (Ghana). Slavery Abolit. 35:184–98
     [Google Scholar]
  154. Shumway R 2021. Public slavery in the precolonial Gold Coast. Being Everybody's Slaves: A Comparative Study on Public Slavery in the Ancient and Modern World F Luciani 80–91. London: Univ. London
     [Google Scholar]
  155. Shumway R, Getz TR, eds 2017. Slavery and Its Legacy in Ghana and the Diaspora London: Bloomsbury Acad.
  156. Singleton T. 1999. The slave trade remembered on the former Gold and Slave Coasts. Slavery Abolit. 20:1150–69
     [Google Scholar]
  157. Sparks R. 2014. Where the Negroes Are Masters: An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press
  158. Stahl AB. 2001. Making History in Banda: Anthropological Visions of Africa's Past Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  159. Stahl AB. 2002. Colonial entanglements and the practices of taste: an alternative to logocentric approaches. Am. Anthropol. 104:827–47
     [Google Scholar]
  160. Stahl AB. 2007. Entangled lives: the archaeology of daily life in the Gold Coast hinterlands, AD 1400–1900. Archaeology of Atlantic Africa and the African Diaspora A Ogundiran, T Falola 49–76. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  161. Stahl AB. 2008. The slave trade as practice and memory: What are the issues for archaeologists?. Invisible Citizens: Captives and Their Consequences CM Cameron 25–56. Salt Lake City: Univ. Utah Press
     [Google Scholar]
  162. Stahl AB. 2015. The transactional dynamics of surplus in landscapes of enslavement: scalar perspectives from interstitial West Africa. Surplus: The Politics of Production and the Strategies of Everyday Life CT Morehart, K De Lucia 267–306. Boulder: Univ. Colo. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  163. Stahl AB, Cruz MD. 1998. Men and women in a market economy: gender and craft production in west central Ghana, c. 1775–1995. Gender in African Prehistory S Kent 205–26. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira
     [Google Scholar]
  164. Stilwell S. 2014. Slavery and Slaving in African History New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
  165. Svalesen L. 2000. The Slave Ship Fredensborg Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  166. Swanepoel N 2005. Socio-political change on a slave-raiding frontier: war, trade, and “big men” in nineteenth century Sisaland, Northern Ghana. Past Tense: Studies in the Archaeology of Conflict T Pollard, I Banks 265–93. Leiden, Neth: Brill
     [Google Scholar]
  167. Swanepoel N 2011. Different conversations about the same thing? Source materials in the recreation of a nineteenth-century slave-raiding landscape, Northern Ghana. Slavery in Africa: Archaeology and Memory P Lane, K McDonald 167–97. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  168. Teye VB, Timothy DJ. 2004. The varied colors of slave heritage in West Africa: White American stakeholders. Space Cult. 7:2145–55
     [Google Scholar]
  169. Thiaw I 2011. Slaves without shackles: an archaeology of everyday life on Gorée Island. Slavery in Africa: Archaeology and Memory P Lane, K MacDonald 147–65. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
     [Google Scholar]
  170. Van Danzig A. 1980. Forts and Castles of Ghana Accra, Ghana: Sedco
  171. Venkatachalam M. 2015. Slavery, Memory and Religion in Southeastern Ghana, c. 1850–Present Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  172. Webster J. 2008. Slave ships and maritime archaeology: an overview. Int. J. Hist. Archaeol. 12:6–19
     [Google Scholar]
  173. Wellington HN-A. 2011. Stones Tell Stories at Osu: Memories of a Host Community of the Danish Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Accra, Ghana: Sub-Saharan
  174. Wilks I. 1975. Asante in the Nineteenth Century: The Structure and Evolution of a Political Order Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  175. Wright R. 1954. Black Power: A Record of Reactions in a Land of Pathos New York: Harper Perennial
  176. Yankholmes AKB, Akyeampomg OA, Laud A. 2009. Residents' perceptions of transatlantic slave trade attractions for heritage tourism in Danish-Osu, Ghana. J. Herit. Tour. 4:4315–29
     [Google Scholar]
  177. Yarak LW. 1989. West African coastal society in the nineteenth century: the case of the Afro-European slaveowners of Elmina. Ethnohistory 36:144–60
     [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-anthro-052621-022531
Loading

Supplemental Material

Supplementary Data

  • Article Type: Review Article

Most Cited Most Cited RSS feed

This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error